selenium

Foods Richest in selenium

About selenium

Basic description

Selenium is a trace mineral required in small daily amounts (55 mcg for adults). The body incorporates it into a cluster of approximately 25 selenoproteins, each containing selenocysteine at its active site.

Research over the past two decades has produced conflicting findings on whether low-selenium diets correlate with cancer incidence. That question remains unresolved. What is established: selenium is necessary for glutathione peroxidase activity, thyroid hormone conversion, and several other enzymatic processes.

Selenium content of plant foods tracks closely with soil selenium levels, which vary widely across geographic regions, including within the U.S. For most Americans, soil variability does not translate into deficiency. The U.S. population aged 2 and older averages over 100 mcg of selenium per day, well above the 55 mcg DRI.

Fish, grass-fed meats, whole grains, nuts, and seeds are the strongest food sources. Nine WHF foods qualify as excellent selenium sources, eight as very good, and ten as good.

Role in health support

Antioxidant protection

Selenium is required for the activity of glutathione peroxidases (abbreviated GPx). Five of the eight known GPx enzymes contain selenocysteine at their catalytic sites. These enzymes reduce hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxides, limiting oxidative damage to cell membranes and DNA.

Selenium-dependent enzymes also participate in regenerating vitamin C from its oxidized form (dehydroascorbic acid) back to ascorbic acid, extending the antioxidant capacity of that vitamin.

Support normal thyroid function

The iodothyronine deiodinases, a family of selenium-dependent enzymes, convert the prohormone thyroxine (T4) into the metabolically active triiodothyronine (T3). Selenium and iodine function as co-dependencies in thyroid metabolism; a deficiency of either impairs T3 production.

This is not a theoretical concern. Researchers have induced measurable thyroid dysfunction in human subjects within two months on a low-selenium diet.

Summary of food sources

Brazil nuts are the most concentrated natural source of selenium. Depending on growing region, one ounce can supply 10 times the 55 mcg DRI. Oysters, clams, liver, and kidney each contain 2-3 times the DRI per serving. These are outliers, however.

As a general pattern, fish and shellfish make up the largest proportion of excellent and very good selenium sources. Other animal meats fall mostly in the very good range. Whole grains and seeds are well-represented among good sources.

Nearly all WHF foods contain measurable selenium, making routine intake straightforward through varied whole-food meals.

Nutrient rating chart

Introduction to nutrient rating system chart

Read more background information and details of our rating system

WHF ranked as quality sources of
selenium

Food

Serving
Size

Cals

Amount
(mcg)

DRI/DV
(%)

Nutrient
Density

World’s
Healthiest
Foods Rating

Tuna

4 oz

147.4

122.70

223

27.2

excellent

Shrimp

4 oz

134.9

56.13

102

13.6

excellent

Sardines

3.20 oz

188.7

47.81

87

8.3

excellent

Salmon

4 oz

157.6

43.09

78

8.9

excellent

Cod

4 oz

96.4

31.75

58

10.8

excellent

Mushrooms, Crimini

1 cup

15.8

18.72

34

38.7

excellent

Mushrooms, Shiitake

0.50 cup

40.6

17.98

33

14.5

excellent

Asparagus

1 cup

39.6

10.98

20

9.1

excellent

Mustard Seeds

2 tsp

20.3

8.32

15

13.4

excellent

Turkey

4 oz

166.7

34.25

62

6.7

very good

Chicken

4 oz

187.1

31.30

57

5.5

very good

Lamb

4 oz

310.4

27.90

51

2.9

very good

Scallops

4 oz

125.9

24.61

45

6.4

very good

Beef

4 oz

175.0

23.93

44

4.5

very good

Barley

0.33 cup

217.1

23.12

42

3.5

very good

Tofu

4 oz

164.4

19.73

36

3.9

very good

Eggs

1 each

77.5

15.40

28

6.5

very good

Brown Rice

1 cup

216.4

19.11

35

2.9

good

Sunflower Seeds

0.25 cup

204.4

18.55

34

3.0

good

Sesame Seeds

0.25 cup

206.3

12.38

23

2.0

good

Cow’s milk

4 oz

74.4

4.51

8

2.0

good

Flaxseeds

2 TBS

74.8

3.56

6

1.6

good

Cabbage

1 cup

43.5

3.45

6

2.6

good

Spinach

1 cup

41.4

2.70

5

2.1

good

Garlic

6 cloves

26.8

2.56

5

3.1

good

Broccoli

1 cup

54.6

2.50

5

1.5

good

Swiss Chard

1 cup

35.0

1.57

3

1.5

good

World’s Healthiest
Foods Rating

Rule

excellent

DRI/DV>=75% OR
Density>=7.6 AND DRI/DV>=10%

very good

DRI/DV>=50% OR
Density>=3.4 AND DRI/DV>=5%

good

DRI/DV>=25% OR
Density>=1.5 AND DRI/DV>=2.5%

Impact of cooking, storage and processing

Like other minerals, selenium content of foods is stable during storage.

Animal foods tend to lose little selenium in cooking or processing. For example, the amount of selenium lost in the canning process of common seafood was marginal—less than 10% of the total pre-cooking amount. Similarly, broiling beef does not lead to significant loss of the rich selenium content.

Processing whole grains is much more detrimental to selenium content. Making 60% extraction wheat flour from 100% whole wheat robs it of just shy of half of the selenium content. (It is 60% extraction wheat flour that is the most common type used in production of breads in the U.S. where the bran and the germ of the grain have been removed and the flour has become lighter in color.)

Risk of dietary deficiency

According to NHANES III data, the risk of selenium deficiency in the U.S. is very low. The average adult consumes about 106 mcg per day, nearly double the 55 mcg DRI.

No age or gender group in the U.S. falls significantly short. Even young children average above the adult DRI.

Other circumstances that might contribute to deficiency

Common risk factors for selenium deficiency in the U.S. are rare given that average dietary intake exceeds all public health recommendations.

When deficiency does appear in the U.S., the causes tend to be medical rather than dietary. Bowel surgeries (especially bariatric procedures) and severe malabsorption conditions have been associated with symptomatic selenium deficiency. These situations are uncommon, and they typically cause deficiency of multiple nutrients simultaneously.

Relationship with other nutrients

In otherwise well-nourished individuals, selenium deficiency is clinically silent. Overt symptoms typically require concurrent deficiency of other nutrients, a pattern somewhat unique among minerals.

Concurrent deficiency of selenium, vitamin C, and vitamin E amplifies oxidative damage because all three participate in the glutathione-ascorbate redox cycle. Recipes like Steamed Salmon and Asparagus combine strong sources of these antioxidant nutrients.

Combined selenium and iodine deficiency worsens thyroid disorders beyond what iodine deficiency alone would produce. The level of selenium depletion required for this synergistic effect is severe and uncommon in the U.S. The Huevos Rancheros recipe provides both minerals in meaningful amounts.

Risk of dietary toxicity

The National Academy of Sciences has set the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of selenium intake at 400 mcg per day. Based on data from the National Health and Nutrition Study, it doesn’t appear that we eat more than this amount very frequently.

In practical terms, most of our excellent and very good sources of selenium contain from 25 to 60 mcg. To routinely go above the UL for selenium intake, you would need to have about 5 or more servings of these high-selenium foods on top of a number of more moderate selenium sources every day.

A well-balanced whole-foods meal plan typically averages about one-fourth of the UL, leaving substantial margin while still meeting the DRI.

Disease checklist

• Immune function
• Depression
• Cardiovascular disease
• Cancer prevention (only if deficient)
• Hypothyroidism
• Infertility (male)

Public health recommendations

In the year 2000, the National Academy of Sciences established Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for selenium that included Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) recommendations by age. These DRI recommendations are used as the reference standard for the charts on this page. (The only exceptions here are the recommendations for infants 12 months and under. Those recommendation levels are not RDAs but rather Adequate Intake, or AI levels.)

• 0-6 months: 15 mcg
• 6-12 months: 20 mcg
• 1-3 years: 20 mcg
• 4-8 years: 30 mcg
• 9-13 years: 40 mcg
• 14+ years: 55 mcg
• Pregnant women: 60 mcg
• Lactating women: 70 mcg

The DRI report also established a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for selenium intake of 400 mcg. This UL is for all selenium intake from foods and supplements and it is established as an amount not be exceeded on any routine basis.

The Daily Value (DV) for selenium intake is 70 mcg per day. This is the standard you’ll see on food labels.

The WHF standard adopts the DRI value for males and non-pregnant females ages 14 and older: 55 micrograms.

What can high-selenium foods do for you?

• Protect cells from free-radical damage
• Enable your thyroid to produce thyroid hormone
• Help lower your risk of joint inflammation

Description

What is selenium?

This micromineral is needed in the diet on a daily basis, but only in very small amounts (50 micrograms or less). The other microminerals that all humans must get from food are arsenic, boron, cobalt, copper, chromium, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc.

In the case of selenium, the amount needed from food is actually measured in micrograms, and ranges from 20-70 micrograms. (A microgram is one thousandth of a milligram, and in one ounce, there are about 30 million micrograms.)

While the nutritional value of all plant food depends on the soil in which it was grown, the selenium content of plants seems particularly sensitive to soil concentrations. For this reason, most of the early research on selenium focused on diseases in sheep, cattle, turkeys, and pigs which involved low soil concentrations of selenium and insufficient amounts of selenium in the forage plants eaten by these animals.

How it functions

What is the function of selenium?

Prevention of oxidative stress

Although humans have to breathe oxygen to stay alive, oxygen is a risky substance inside the body because it can make molecules overly reactive. When oxygen-containing molecules become too reactive, they can start damaging the cell structures around them. In chemistry, this imbalanced situation involving oxygen is called oxidative stress.

Selenium helps prevent oxidative stress by working together with a group of nutrients that prevent oxygen molecules from becoming too reactive. This group of nutrients includes vitamin E, vitamin C, glutathione, selenium, and vitamin B3.

In many instances of heart disease, for example, where oxidative stress has been shown to be the source of blood vessel damage, low intake of selenium has been identified as a contributing factor to the disease. Similarly, in rheumatoid arthritis, where oxidative stress damages the area inside and around the joints, dietary deficiency of selenium has been show to be a contributing cause.

Support of the thyroid gland

In addition to iodine, selenium is a critical mineral for maintaining proper function of the thyroid gland. In order for the thyroid to produce the most active form of its hormone (a version of thyroid hormone that is called T3), selenium is not only essential, but also helps regulate the amount of hormone that is produced.

Cancer prevention

Accumulated evidence from prospective studies, intervention trials and studies on animal models of cancer have suggested a strong inverse correlation between selenium intake and cancer incidence. Several mechanisms have been suggested to explain the cancer-preventive activities of selenium. Selenium has been shown to induce DNA repair and synthesis in damaged cells, to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells, and to induce their apoptosis, the self-destruct sequence the body uses to eliminate worn out or abnormal cells. In addition, selenium is incorporated at the active site of many proteins, including glutathione peroxidase, which is particularly important for cancer protection. One of the body’s most powerful antioxidant enzymes, glutathione peroxidase is used in the liver to detoxify a wide range of potentially harmful molecules. When levels of glutathione peroxidase are too low, these toxic molecules are not disarmed and wreak havoc on any cells with which they come in contact, damaging their cellular DNA and promoting the development of cancer cells.

Deficiency symptoms

What are deficiency symptoms for selenium?

Deficiency symptoms for selenium are difficult to determine and controversial in the research literature. Intake of selenium that is borderline or only mildly deficient has not been connected with specific symptoms in the research literature. With prolonged and severe deficiency, symptoms clearly center around two of the body areas where oxidative stress is known to take its toll: the heart and the joints.

With respect to the heart, there is actually a specific disease, called Keshan disease, which can be prevented by increased intake of selenium. This disease involves heart arrhythmias and loss of heart tissue. With respect to the joints, there is also a specific disease, called Kashin-Beck’s disease, in which selenium deficiency has been determined to be a primary contributing cause. This disease involves deterioration of the joint tissue.

When severe selenium deficiency is accompanied by severe overall malnutrition, symptoms can include weakness or pain in the muscles, discoloration of the hair or skin, and whitening of the fingernail beds.

Toxicity symptoms

What are toxicity symptoms for selenium?

Nausea, vomiting, hair loss, skin lesions, abnormalities in the beds of the fingernails, and fingernail loss can all be symptomatic of selenium toxicity. Levels of selenium necessary to trigger these toxicity symptoms aren’t usually obtained from food, since selenium-rich foods contain about 30-50 micrograms of selenium per serving. (Brazil nuts would be an exception here, since they average about 70-90 micrograms per nut). Selenium supplementation would be a more likely case of selenium toxicity than food ingestion.

In light of potential toxicity risks, the National Academy of Sciences (in the year 2000) set a tolerable upper limit (UL) for selenium of 400 micrograms per day for men and women 19 years and older.

Factors that affect function

What factors might contribute to a deficiency of selenium?

Dietary deficiency is the most common cause of selenium deficiency. Because plant content of selenium is so heavily dependent on the selenium content of the soil, researchers have been able to identify different areas of the world where selenium deficiency is particularly common.

For example, several areas of Africa, Russia, New Zealand, and China have been identified as high-risk selenium deficiency areas. In the United States, parts of the Pacific Northwest, parts of the Great Lakes region moving eastward toward the New England states, and parts of the Atlantic Coast have also been identified as selenium-deficient regions. Living in these regions and eating foods grown within them could contribute to risk of selenium deficiency.

Nutrient interactions

How do other nutrients interact with selenium?

Selenium is indirectly responsible for keeping the body’s supply of at least three other nutrients intact: these three other nutrients are vitamin C, glutathione, and vitamin E. Although the chemistry of these relationships is complicated, it centers around an enzyme (protein molecule in the body that helps “jump start” a chemical reaction) called glutathione peroxidase. This enzyme cannot function without selenium.

Both iron deficiency and copper deficiency appear to increase the risk of selenium deficiency.

Health conditions

What health conditions require special emphasis on selenium?

Selenium may play a role in the prevention and/or treatment of the following health conditions:

• Acne
• Asthma
• Cervical dysplasia
• Colorectal cancer
• Esophageal cancer
• HIV/AIDS
• Infertility (male)
• Kashin-Beck’s disease
• Keshan’s disease
• Multiple sclerosis
• Ovarian cysts
• Parkinson’s disease
• Periodontal disease
• Psoriasis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Senile cataracts
• SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
• Stomach cancer

Food sources

What foods provide selenium?

It is important to remember that the selenium content of food is highly variable because it depends so heavily on soil conditions. In fact, some researchers have concluded that it is not possible to create a valid list of foods and their selenium content for this very reason. While soil conditions affect plant foods most directly, they also affect animal foods, since most animals depend upon plants for their diet.

Brazil nuts are the most highly concentrated source of selenium. In fact, scientists have shown that a daily Brazil nut is a better source of the mineral than taking a supplement. New Zealand researchers compared Brazil nuts’ efficacy to that of selenomethionine supplements in increasing selenium status in 59 New Zealand residents with low selenium (plasma selenium concentrations < 1.27 micro mol/L).

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. One group ate two Brazil nuts each day (estimated to provide approx. 100 micrograms Se). A second group took a supplement providing 100 micrograms of selenium as selenomethionine per day, and the third group, who served as controls, were given a placebo pill. Blood levels of selenium and glutathione peroxidase (GPx - a selenium containing enzyme that is one of the body’s most important antioxidants) activities were measured at the beginning of the study and at 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks.

By week 12, blood levels of selenium had increased by 64.2%, 61.0% and 7.6%, respectively, in the Brazil nut, selenomethionine, and placebo groups. Plasma levels of GPx increased by 8.3%, 3.4% and -1.2%, and whole blood GPx by 13.2%, 5.3% and 1.9% in the Brazil nut, selenomethionine and placebo groups, respectively.

Not only was consumption of two Brazil nuts each day as effective for increasing selenium status and enhancing GPx activity as 100 micrograms of selenomethionine per day, but just one Brazil nut per day would have been sufficient to raise dietary selenium intake to within recommended intake levels for the mineral.

The researchers pointed out that food sources are always preferable to supplementation for improving the nutritional status of a population because they are sustainable, less expensive and have a lower risk of toxicity.

The authors did, however, warn that Brazil nuts are not uniform in their selenium content and may contain much more or much less than the estimated 50 micrograms per nut. No more than one or two Brail nuts should be consumed daily to avoid excessive accumulation of selenium in tissues. (Thomson CD, Chisholm A, et al.,Am J Clin Nutr) Practical Tip: Why take expensive supplements? Enjoy just one Brazil nut each day and ensure your selenium levels remain OK.

Grown or raised under ideal soil conditions, crimini mushrooms, cod, shrimp, tuna, halibut, salmon, and mustard seeds are also excellent sources of selenium.

Very good sources of selenium include salmon, scallops, chicken, eggs, shiitake mushrooms, lamb, barley, grass-fed beef, and turkey.

Related Articles

• 10 Most Controversial WHFoods
• Are Vegetarian Diets Really More Healthful?
• Can salads be a good source of nutrients?
• Can you get too many antioxidants?
• Can you tell me more about blackstrap molasses?
• How can my diet help protect me from sunburn?
• How to Help Avoid the Swine Flu and Seasonal Flu by Strengthening Your Immune System with the World's Healthiest Foods
• Should I be concerned about mercury in fish and what fish are safe to eat?
• Should I Include Meatless Meals In My Diet?
• What Do You Think About a Mostly Vegetarian-Plus-Dairy/Eggs Meal Plan?
• What is meant by the term "goitrogen" and what is the connection between goitrogens, food, and health?
• What Nutrients Are Most Likely to be Deficient in a Vegetarian Diet?

References

1. Doblado-Maldonado AF, Pike, OA, Sweley JC, et al. Key issues and challenges in whole wheat flour milling and storage. J Cereal Sci 2012;56:119-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2012.02.015
2. Dudek JA, Elkins ER, Behl BA, et al. Effects of cooking and canning on the mineral content of selected seafoods. J Food Comp Anal 1989;2:273-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/0889-1575(89)90024-0
3. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000;284-324.
4. Freeth A, Prajuabpansri P, Victory JM, et al. Assessment of selenium in Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and gastric banding surgery. Obes Surg 2012;22:1660-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695-012-0680-6
5. Hawkes WC, Keim NL. Dietary selenium intake modulates thyroid hormone and energy metabolism in men. J Nutr 2003;133:3443-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.11.3443
6. Matos-Reyes MN, Cervera ML, Campos RC, et al. Total content of As, Sb, Se, Te and Bi in Spanish vegetables, cereals and pulses and estimation of the contribution of these foods to the Mediterranean daily intake of trace elements. Food Chem 2010;122;188-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.02.052
7. Mehdi Y, Hornick JL, Istasse L, et al. Selenium in the Environment, Metabolism and Involvement in Body Functions. Molecules 2013, 18(3), 3292-3311; doi:10.3390/molecules18033292. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18033292
8. Richie JP, Muscat JE, Ellison I, et al. Association of selenium status and blood glutathione concentrations in blacks and whites. Nutr Cancer 63:367-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2011.535967
9. Schomburg L. Selenium, selenoproteins and the thyroid gland: interactions in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011;18:160-71. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2011.174
10. Vogt TM, Ziegler RG, Patterson BH, et al. Racial differences in serum selenium concentration: analysis of US population data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol 2007;166:280-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm075
11. Weeks BS, Hanna MS, Cooperstein D. Dietary selenium and selenoprotein function. Med Sci Monit 2012;18:RA127-32. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.883258
12. Abrams CK, Siram SM, Galsim C, et al. Selenium deficiency in long-term total parenteral nutrition. Nutr Clin Pract 1992 7:175-178. 1992. https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426592007004175
13. Badmaev V, Muhammed M, Passwater RA. Selenium: a quest for better understanding. Alt Ther 1996;2(4):59-67. 1996.
14. Diplock AT. Selenium, antioxidant nutritions, and human diseases. Biol Trac Elem Res. 1992;33:155-156. 1992. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02784005
15. ESHA Research. Based on data obtained from Food Processor for Windows. Version 7.60, Database version December 2000, ESHA Research, Salem, Oregon. 2000.
16. Finley JW, Matthys L, Shuler T, et al. Selenium content of foods purchased in North Dakota. Nutr Res 1996;16:723-728. 1996. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5317(96)00062-0
17. Ge K, Yang G. The epidemiology of selenium deficiency in the etiological study of endemic diseases in China. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:259S-263S. 1993. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/57.2.259s
18. Groff JL, Gropper SS, Hunt SM. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. West Publishing Company, New York, 1995. 1995.
19. Lane HW, Lotspeich CA, Moore CE, et al. The effect of selenium supplementation on selenium status of patients receiving chronic total parenteral nutrition. JPEN 1987;11:177-182. 1987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607187011002177
20. Mascio PD, Murphy ME, Sies H. Antioxidant defense systems: the role of Carotenoids, tocopherols, and thiols. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:194S-200S. 1991. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.1.194s
21. Meiners CR, Derise NL, Lau HC, et al. (1976). The content of nine mineral elements in raw and cooked mature dry legumes. J Arg Food Chem 1976;24:1126-1130. 1976.
22. Moriarty PM, Picciano MF, Beard J, et al. Iron deficiency decreases Se-GPX mRNA level in the libver and impairs selenium utilization in other tissues. FASEB J 1993;7:A277. 1993.
23. National Research Council. Selenium in nutrition. Revised edition. Board on Agriculture, Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Academy of Sciences Press, Washington, DC, 1983. 1983.
24. Nishiyama S, Futagoishi-Suginohara Y, Matsukura M, et al. Zinc supplementation alters thyroid hormone metabolism in disabled patients with zinc deficiency. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:62-67. 1994. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.1994.10718373
25. Olin KL, Walter RM, Keen CL. Copper deficiency affects selenoglutathione peroxidase and selenodeiodinase activities and antioxidant defense in weanling rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59:654-658. 1994. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/59.3.654
26. Pedersen B, Eggum BO. The influence of milling on the nutritive value of flour from cereal grains. Part 2. Wheat. Qual Plant Plant Fds Hum Nutr 1983;33:51-61. 1983. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01094752
27. Stone J, Doube A, Dudson D, et al. Inadequate calcium, folic acid, vitamin E, zinc, and selenium intake in rheumatoid arthritis patients: results of a dietary survey. Semin Arth Rheum 1997;27(3):180-185. 1997. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0049-0172(97)80018-2
28. Thomson CD, Chisholm A, McLachlan SK, Campbell JM. Brazil nuts: an effective way to improve selenium status. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Feb;87(2):379-84. 2008. PMID:18258628. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.2.379
29. Vogt, T. M. Ziegler, R. G. Graubard, B. I et al. Serum selenium and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. blacks and whites. Int J Cancer. 2003 Feb 20; 103(5):664-70. 2003.
30. Abrams CK, Siram SM, Galsim C, et al. Selenium deficiency in long-term total parenteral nutrition. Nutr Clin Pract 1992 7:175-178 1992. https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426592007004175
31. Badmaev V, Muhammed M, Passwater RA. Selenium: a quest for better understanding. Alt Ther 1996;2(4):59-67 1996.
32. ESHA Research. Based on data obtained from Food Processor for Windows. Version 7.60, Database version December 2000, ESHA Research, Salem, Oregon 2000.
33. Finley JW, Matthys L, Shuler T, et al. Selenium content of foods purchased in North Dakota. Nutr Res 1996;16:723-728 1996. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5317(96)00062-0
34. Ge K, Yang G. The epidemiology of selenium deficiency in the etiological study of endemic diseases in China. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:259S-263S 1993. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/57.2.259s
35. Groff JL, Gropper SS, Hunt SM. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. West Publishing Company, New York, 1995 1995.
36. Lane HW, Lotspeich CA, Moore CE, et al. The effect of selenium supplementation on selenium status of patients receiving chronic total parenteral nutrition. JPEN 1987;11:177-182 1987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607187011002177
37. Mascio PD, Murphy ME, Sies H. Antioxidant defense systems: the role of Carotenoids, tocopherols, and thiols. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:194S-200S 1991. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.1.194s
38. Meiners CR, Derise NL, Lau HC, et al. (1976). The content of nine mineral elements in raw and cooked mature dry legumes. J Arg Food Chem 1976;24:1126-1130 1976.
39. Moriarty PM, Picciano MF, Beard J, et al. Iron deficiency decreases Se-GPX mRNA level in the libver and impairs selenium utilization in other tissues. FASEB J 1993;7:A277 1993.
40. National Research Council. Selenium in nutrition. Revised edition. Board on Agriculture, Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Academy of Sciences Press, Washington, DC, 1983 1983.
41. Nishiyama S, Futagoishi-Suginohara Y, Matsukura M, et al. Zinc supplementation alters thyroid hormone metabolism in disabled patients with zinc deficiency. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:62-67 1994. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.1994.10718373
42. Olin KL, Walter RM, Keen CL. Copper deficiency affects selenoglutathione peroxidase and selenodeiodinase activities and antioxidant defense in weanling rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59:654-658 1994. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/59.3.654
43. Pedersen B, Eggum BO. The influence of milling on the nutritive value of flour from cereal grains. Part 2. Wheat. Qual Plant Plant Fds Hum Nutr 1983;33:51-61 1983. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01094752
44. Stone J, Doube A, Dudson D, et al. Inadequate calcium, folic acid, vitamin E, zinc, and selenium intake in rheumatoid arthritis patients: results of a dietary survey. Semin Arth Rheum 1997;27(3):180-185 1997. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0049-0172(97)80018-2
45. Vogt, T. M. Ziegler, R. G. Graubard, B. I et al. Serum selenium and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. blacks and whites. Int J Cancer. 2003 Feb 20; 103(5):664-70 2003.