vitamin B1 - thiamin

Foods Richest in vitamin B1 - thiamin

About vitamin B1 - thiamin

Basic description

Vitamin B1 (thiamin) is a B-complex vitamin found in trace amounts in nearly all foods. Half of WHF foods rank as good, very good, or excellent sources. Despite this wide availability, B1 deficiency is among the more common nutrient shortfalls in the U.S.

The explanation is food processing. Thiamin is one of the most processing-sensitive nutrients. Storage, milling, refining, and prolonged cooking each destroy a significant fraction of B1 content. The Impact of Cooking, Storage, and Processing section below quantifies these losses.

This sensitivity to processing makes thiamin a practical argument for minimal-processing cooking methods and whole-food selection.

Of the foods listed on our site, we have one excellent source of vitamin B1 (asparagus), 10 very good sources, and 39 good sources. All of the WHF, with the exceptions of a few spices and sweeteners, contain at least some vitamin B1. We have 61 recipes with more than one quarter of the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for vitamin B1. Two examples are Healthy Turkey Salad and Sauteéed Mushrooms With Green Peas.

Role in health support

Promotes energy production

Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP), the active coenzyme form of B1, is required by pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, two enzyme complexes that sit at critical junctions between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Without TPP, cells cannot efficiently extract energy from carbohydrates.

Because thiamin occupies this bottleneck position in energy metabolism, deficiency impairs virtually every tissue. Severe, prolonged deficiency (rare in the U.S.) damages the nervous system, heart, and gastrointestinal tract.

Offers nervous system support

The brain consumes roughly 20% of the body’s resting energy despite accounting for only 2% of body weight. This disproportionate energy demand makes neural tissue particularly vulnerable to thiamin depletion. B1 deficiency has been implicated in conditions ranging from Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (alcohol-related brain disease) to Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.

In addition to its role in energy production, vitamin B1 plays a key role in the structure and integrity of the cells of the brain. If the deficiency is very advanced, or occurs at a critical period of brain development, the damage can be quite severe.

Summary of food sources

As a rule of thumb, legumes and vegetables are the richest whole food sources of vitamin B1. Nuts and seeds can also be concentrated in vitamin B1. Below are some further details about vitamin B1 and the WHF.

Many of the World’s Healthiest vegetables rank as good sources of vitamin B1. These vegetables include broccoli, onions, green beans, summer squash, carrots, kale, and tomatoes. More nutrient-rich and ranking as very good sources of vitamin B1 are green peas, beet greens, Brussels sprouts, spinach, cabbage, eggplant, romaine lettuce, and crimini mushrooms. And topping our WHF list as an excellent source of B1 is asparagus.

Very good sources of vitamin B1 in the seeds group include sunflower seeds and flax seeds. Good sources in the legume group include navy, black, pinto, lima, and kidney beans, as well as lentils and dried peas.

Nutrient rating chart

Introduction to nutrient rating system chart

Read more background information and details of our rating system

WHF ranked as quality sources of
vitamin B1

Food

Serving
Size

Cals

Amount
(mg)

DRI/DV
(%)

Nutrient
Density

World’s
Healthiest
Foods Rating

Asparagus

1 cup

39.6

0.29

24

11.0

excellent

Sunflower Seeds

0.25 cup

204.4

0.52

43

3.8

very good

Green Peas

1 cup

115.7

0.36

30

4.7

very good

Flaxseeds

2 TBS

74.8

0.23

19

4.6

very good

Brussels Sprouts

1 cup

56.2

0.17

14

4.5

very good

Beet Greens

1 cup

38.9

0.17

14

6.6

very good

Spinach

1 cup

41.4

0.17

14

6.2

very good

Cabbage

1 cup

43.5

0.11

9

3.8

very good

Eggplant

1 cup

34.6

0.08

7

3.5

very good

Romaine Lettuce

2 cups

16.0

0.07

6

6.6

very good

Mushrooms, Crimini

1 cup

15.8

0.07

6

6.6

very good

Navy Beans

1 cup

254.8

0.43

36

2.5

good

Black Beans

1 cup

227.0

0.42

35

2.8

good

Barley

0.33 cup

217.1

0.40

33

2.8

good

Dried Peas

1 cup

231.3

0.37

31

2.4

good

Lentils

1 cup

229.7

0.33

28

2.2

good

Pinto Beans

1 cup

244.5

0.33

28

2.0

good

Lima Beans

1 cup

216.2

0.30

25

2.1

good

Oats

0.25 cup

151.7

0.30

25

3.0

good

Sesame Seeds

0.25 cup

206.3

0.28

23

2.0

good

Kidney Beans

1 cup

224.8

0.28

23

1.9

good

Peanuts

0.25 cup

206.9

0.23

19

1.7

good

Sweet Potato

1 cup

180.0

0.21

18

1.8

good

Tofu

4 oz

164.4

0.18

15

1.6

good

Tuna

4 oz

147.4

0.15

13

1.5

good

Pineapple

1 cup

82.5

0.13

11

2.4

good

Oranges

1 medium

61.6

0.11

9

2.7

good

Broccoli

1 cup

54.6

0.10

8

2.7

good

Green Beans

1 cup

43.8

0.09

8

3.1

good

Onions

1 cup

92.4

0.09

8

1.5

good

Collard Greens

1 cup

62.7

0.08

7

1.9

good

Summer Squash

1 cup

36.0

0.08

7

3.3

good

Carrots

1 cup

50.0

0.08

7

2.4

good

Tomatoes

1 cup

32.4

0.07

6

3.2

good

Cantaloupe

1 cup

54.4

0.07

6

1.9

good

Kale

1 cup

36.4

0.07

6

2.9

good

Mustard Greens

1 cup

36.4

0.06

5

2.5

good

Turnip Greens

1 cup

28.8

0.06

5

3.1

good

Swiss Chard

1 cup

35.0

0.06

5

2.6

good

Bok Choy

1 cup

20.4

0.05

4

3.7

good

Watermelon

1 cup

45.6

0.05

4

1.6

good

Bell Peppers

1 cup

28.5

0.05

4

2.6

good

Cauliflower

1 cup

28.5

0.05

4

2.6

good

Grapefruit

0.50 medium

41.0

0.05

4

1.8

good

Garlic

6 cloves

26.8

0.04

3

2.2

good

Parsley

0.50 cup

10.9

0.03

3

4.1

good

Cucumber

1 cup

15.6

0.03

3

2.9

good

Cumin

2 tsp

15.8

0.03

3

2.9

good

Mustard Seeds

2 tsp

20.3

0.03

3

2.2

good

Sea Vegetables

1 TBS

10.8

0.03

3

4.1

good

World’s Healthiest
Foods Rating

Rule

excellent

DRI/DV>=75% OR
Density>=7.6 AND DRI/DV>=10%

very good

DRI/DV>=50% OR
Density>=3.4 AND DRI/DV>=5%

good

DRI/DV>=25% OR
Density>=1.5 AND DRI/DV>=2.5%

Impact of cooking, storage and processing

Few nutrients have more risk of damage during food processing than B1. It is prone to damage from heat, not entirely stable to storage, and commonly removed from foods in cooking and refining.

Vitamin B1 is prone to destruction by heat. Conventional cooking methods and microwaving can be expected to reduce the vitamin B1 content of food by roughly 20-50%. Prolonged high-temperature roasting may be one of the most problematic cooking methods in this regard. One research group has shown a near total destruction in grains roasted at 300°F (205°C) for one hour.

One of the first health problems to be linked with vitamin B1 deficiency was beriberi. Beriberi is extremely rare in the United States. But from a historical perspective, beriberi was a particularly problematic disease in countries that depended very heavily on intake of rice and who began to polish the outer layers off of the rice prior to cooking. Since B1 was contained in these outer layers, they were polishing off the B1 as well. While few people in the U.S. are likely to get diagnosed with beriberi (primarily because we are not heavily dependent on intake of rice as a source of B1), processed rice and other processed grains are likely to have lost a good amount of B1. Avoiding this situation is one reason we emphasize the importance of whole natural foods.

The value of whole natural foods as sources of B1 is easy to see in our WHF recipes. Many of our most vitamin B1-rich recipes—for example, our Mediterranean-Style Salad and Vegetable Appetizer 4—require almost no cooking or processing of ingredients in preparation. Our Mediterranean-Style Salad provides you with 50% of your daily vitamin B1! And our Vegetable Appetizer 4 provides you with 45%.

For more specifics on how to best choose specific foods for optimal nutrient content, visit the “How to Select and Store” content for each food.

Risk of dietary deficiency

The risk of dietary deficiency of vitamin B1 in the U.S. is substantial. Nearly 20% of US residents over the age of 2 years fail to reach recommended amounts of dietary vitamin B1 each day.

If that doesn’t sound bad enough, the story is actually a bit worse. If it weren’t for the “enrichment” of wheat flour in the United States—a process whereby nutrients destroyed by processing are added back into processed wheat—more than half of Americans would fail to reach the DRI standard for vitamin B1. Our U.S. dependence on artificially rich foods as a source of B1 would be greatly reduced if we shifted over to a minimally processed diet based around fresh whole foods.

In a daily diet, if you get at least one serving of legumes and another of seeds, you’ll be at least half way to the daily value recommendation for vitamin B1. Adding several servings of vegetables should get you well on your way to the recommended daily total.

Other circumstances that might contribute to deficiency

People with heart failure, gastrointestinal disease, and diabetes all have increased risk of vitamin B1 deficiency. In each of these groups, restoring normal vitamin B1 levels may prevent some of the worst complications of disease.

Even in the absence of either of these two diseases, elderly people are at increased risk of vitamin B1 deficiency. This is, at least in part, due to a reduction in the ability to absorb dietary vitamin B1 that occurs. To date, researchers have not been able to conclusively prove why this occurs.

A few foods contain substances that can compromise vitamin B1 nourishment. Most of these would be foods we either don’t eat regularly (like raw shellfish and silkworms) or molds that infect foods.

Perhaps the most important and well-known inhibitor of vitamin B1 nutrition in humans, however, is alcohol abuse. Alcoholics use more vitamin B1 in the detoxification of alcohol, often eat less vitamin B1 due to poor dietary habits, have trouble absorbing vitamin B1 in the intestine, and urinate out more of the vitamin. This is an almost perfect scenario for increasing deficiency risk.

Relationship with other nutrients

The way vitamins are named is somewhat confusing—some have just letters, and some have a letter and a number. These numbers and letters are sometimes consecutive, and sometimes not.

Historically, the B vitamins are considered part of a complex because originally they were not understood to be multiple different vitamins. In fact, the individual B complex vitamins tend to overlap with and enhance the activity of the others. When the B complex vitamins are all present, they work as a team to help make sure your cells have they energy they need.

Vitamin B1 is a good example of this complex interaction. When other B vitamins become deficient, particularly folic acid and vitamin B12, absorption of vitamin B1 is compromised. In the opposite direction, having severe vitamin B1 deficiency can lead to diarrhea, compromising absorption of other nutrients.

Risk of dietary toxicity

We have not been able to find any reports of toxicity related to dietary intake of vitamin B1. When supply of the vitamin exceeds our needs, we urinate out the excess. Reflecting the lack of evidence of toxicity, The National Academy of Sciences has not chosen to establish a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for vitamin B1.

Disease checklist

• Beri-beri
• Wernicke’s encephalopathy
• Congestive Heart Failure
• Diabetes
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Pulmonary hypertension
• Liver failure
• Alcoholism
• HIV / AIDS

Public health recommendations

In 1998, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences established Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) recommendations for vitamin B1. The DRIs included Adequate Intake (AI) recommendations for very young children under one year of age, and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for all other individuals. All DRIs for vitamin B1 are summarized below:

• 0-6 months: 0.2 mg
• 6-12 months: 0.3 mg
• 1-3 years: 0.5 mg
• 4-8 years: 0.6 mg
• 9-13 years: 0.9 mg
• 14-18 years, female: 1.0 mg
• 14-18 years, male: 1.2 mg
• 19+ years, female: 1.1 mg
• 19+ years, male: 1.2 mg
• Pregnant women: 1.1 mg
• Lactating women: 1.4 mg

The Daily Value (DV) for vitamin B1 is 1.5 mg per 2000 calories in the diet. This is the value you’ll find listed on food labels.

There is no established Tolerable Upper Intake Limit (UL) for vitamin B1.

As our WHF recommendation for daily intake of vitamin B1, we chose the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) level for men 14 and older of 1.2 milligrams. (This level is about 10% higher than the DRI for women 19 and older of 1.1 milligrams, and we chose it to make sure that both men and women would be covered by the guideline.) The Nutrient Richness Charts on this page use this as the comparison standard as does any food Nutrient Richness Chart where you would see vitamin B1 noted. We chose this as the most recent estimate of vitamin B1 requirement, and the value that best reflects current scientific understanding.

What can foods high in vitamin B1 do for you?

• Maintain your energy supplies
• Coordinate the activity of nerves and muscles
• Support proper heart function

What events can indicate a need for more foods high in vitamin b1?

• Loss of appetite
• “Pins and needles” sensations
• Feeling of numbness, especially in the legs
• Muscle tenderness, particularly in the calf muscles

Asparagus is an excellent source of vitamin B1. Very good sources of vitamin B1 include crimini mushrooms, spinach, flaxseeds, tuna, green peas, and Brussels sprouts.

WHF rich in
vitamin B1

FoodCals%Daily Value

Tuna15837.9%

Sunflower Seeds20434.6%

Navy Beans25528.6%

Black Beans22728%

Dried Peas23124.6%

Green Peas11624%

Pinto Beans24522%

Lentils23022%

Lima Beans21620%

Sesame Seeds20618.6%

For serving size for specific foods, see Nutrient Rating Chart below at the bottom of this page.

• Description

• Function

• Deficiency Symptoms

• Toxicity Symptoms

• Cooking, storage and processing

• Factors that affect function

• Nutrient interaction

• Health conditions

• Food Sources

• Public Health Recommendations

• References

Description

What is vitamin b1?

Vitamin B1, also commonly called thiamin, is a member of the B-vitamin family and most famous for its role in the nutritional deficiency disease beriberi. Beriberi, a word derived from the Sinhalese word beri meaning “weakness,” is a disease that was widespread (particularly in parts of Asia) during the late 19th and early 20th century.

In its most common form, the disease was characterized by muscular weakness , energy deprivation, and inactivity. Sailing voyages were a common backdrop for the appearance of beriberi, and the addition of whole grains to ships rations was discovered to prevent its occurrence. By 1926, researchers discovered that the preventive substance in whole grains that could also remedy the energy deprivation in the ships’ crews was vitamin B1.

Although beriberi is extremely rare in the United States, our understanding of vitamin B1 and its relationship to energy deprivation has carried over into our approach to other health problems (like alcoholism) in which vitamin B1 deficiency plays a critical role.

How it functions

What is the function of vitamin b1?

Energy production

Most cells in the body depend on sugar as an energy source. When oxygen is used to help convert sugar into usable energy, the process of energy generation is called aerobic energy production. This process cannot take place without adequate supplies of vitamin B1, since B1 is part of an enzyme system (called the pyruvate dehydrogenase system) that enables oxygen-based processing of sugar.

When vitamin B1 functions in this energy-production capacity, it is usually present in the form of TDP, or thiamin diphosphate. Other forms of vitamin B1, including TPP (thiamin pyrophosphate) and TMP (thiamin monophosphate) are also important in energy production.

Because vitamin B1 is so important in energy production, and because food energy is usually measured in terms of calories, vitamin B1 is often prescribed in relationship to caloric intake. For example, recommendations sometime suggest intake of 0.5 milligrams of B1 for every 1,000 calories consumed.

Nervous system support

Vitamin B1 also plays a key role in support of the nervous system, where it permits healthy development of the fat-like coverings which surround most nerves (called myelin sheaths). In the absence of vitamin B1, these coverings can degenerate or become damaged. Pain, prickly sensations, and nerve deadening are nerve-related symptoms that can result from vitamin B1 deficiency.

A second type of connection between vitamin B1 and the nervous system involves its role in the production of the messaging molecule acetylcholine. This molecule, called a neurotransmitter, is used by the nervous system to relay messages between the nerves and muscles. Acetylcholine cannot be produced without adequate supplies of vitamin B1. Because acetylcholine is used by the nervous system to ensure proper muscle tone in the heart, deficiency of B1 can also result in compromised heart function.

Deficiency symptoms

What are deficiency symptoms for vitamin b1?

Because of its ability to disrupt the body’s energy production, one of the first symptoms of vitamin B1 deficiency is loss of appetite (called anorexia) that reflects the body’s listlessness and malaise.

Inability of the nervous system to ensure proper muscle tone in the GI tract can lead to indigestion or constipation, and muscle tenderness, particularly in the calf muscles.

Other symptoms related to nerve dysfunction are commonly associated with thiamin deficiency, since the myelin sheaths wrapping the nerves cannot be correctly made without adequate thiamin. These nerve-related symptoms include “pins and needles” sensations or numbness, especially in the legs.

Toxicity symptoms

What are toxicity symptoms for vitamin b1?

Even at extremely high doses of 500 milligrams per day, vitamin B1 intake does not appear to carry a risk of toxicity. This vitamin is often supplemented in high doses during treatment of maple sugar urine disease (MSUD), and may be given intravenously in treatment of alcoholism; these clinical circumstances have provided a broad basis for determining the low risk of toxicity associated with increased intake of thiamin. In its most recent 1998 recommendations for intake of B-complex vitamins, the Institute of Medicine at the National Academy of Sciences did not establish a Tolerable Upper Limit (UL) for intake of vitamin B1.

Factors that affect function

What factors might contribute to a deficiency of vitamin b1?

The leading risk factor for vitamin B-1 deficiency in the United States is alcoholism. In fact, the link between alcoholism, heart disease, and vitamin B1 deficiency is so strong that a specific disease called beriberi heart disease has been formally identified by researchers. This vitamin B1 deficiency condition usually leads to congestive heart failure. Chronic alcoholics may need 10-100 times the ordinary thiamin requirement.

Heavy users of coffee and tea may also have increased risk of vitamin B1 deficiency, since these beverages act as diuretics and remove both water and water-soluble vitamins (like B1) from the body. Our need for vitamin B1 is also increased by chronic stress, chronic diarrhea, chronic fever, and smoking. Individuals with these health problems may need 5-10 times the ordinary amount of vitamin B1.

Nutrient interactions

How do other nutrients interact with vitamin b1?

No B-complex vitamin is more dependent on its fellow B vitamins than thiamin. Absorption of thiamin into the body requires adequate supplies of vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid. A deficiency in vitamin B12 can increase loss of thiamin in the urine, and vitamin B6 also appears to help regulate distribution of thiamin throughout the body.

Health conditions

What health conditions require special emphasis on vitamin b1?

Vitamin B1 may play a role in the prevention and/or treatment of the following health conditions:

• Alcoholism
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Crohn’s disease
• Congestive heart failure
• Depression
• Epilepsy
• Fibromyalgia
• HIV/AIDS
• Korsakoff’s psychosis
• Multiple sclerosis
• Wernicke’s encephalopathy

Food sources

What foods provide vitamin b1?

Asparagus

Drug-nutrient interactions

What medications affect vitamin b1?

“Loop diuretics,” including the drug furosemide (Lasix); birth control pills (oral contraceptives); antibiotics; sulfa drugs; and alcohol have all been shown to decrease the availability of vitamin B1 in the body. In addition, some anticancer drugs like 5-fluorouracil can prevent conversion of vitamin B1 (thiamin) to one of its chemically active forms (thiamine pyrophosphate, or TTP).

Form in dietary supplements

What forms of vitamin B1 are found in dietary supplements?

Most supplements contain vitamin B1 in a biologically non-active form called thiamin hydrochloride. When B1 is active in the body’s metabolic pathways, it is typically found in the form thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP), thiamin monophosphate (TMP), or thiamin diphosphate (TDP). Each of these forms of vitamin B1 is water-soluble and available in supplemental form.

Two synthetic, fat-soluble forms of thiamin also exist. These forms, called thiamin propyl disulfide and thiamin tetrahydrofurfuryl disulphide, are sometimes used in treatment of thiamin deficiency because they follow a different route of absorption into the body.

References

1. Ba A. Metabolic and structural role of vitamin B1e in nervous tissues. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2008;28:923-31. https://doi.org/10.31579/2692-9406/026
2. Doblado-Maldonado AF, Pike OA, Sweley JC, et al. Key issues and challenges in whole wheat flour milling and storage. J Cereal Sci 2012;56:119-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2012.02.015
3. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin B1, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998;58-86.
4. Fulgoni VL, Keast DR, Bailey RL, et al. Foods, fortificants, and supplements: where do Americans get their nutrients. J Nutr 2011;141:1847-54. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.142257
5. Gardner CD, Kim S, Bersamin A, et al. Micronutrient quality of weight-loss diets that focus on macronutrients: results from the A TO Z study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:304-12. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2010.29468
6. Gascon-Bayarri J, Campdelacreu J, Garcia-Carreira MC, et al. Wernicke's encephalopathy in non-alcoholic patients: a series of 8 cases. Neurologia 2011;26:540-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.03.002
7. Gobbetti M, Rizzello CG, Di Cagno R, et al. How the sourdough may affect the functional features of leavened baked goods. Food Microbiol 2013;34:1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2013.04.012
8. Hucker B, Wakeling L, Vriesekoop F. Investigations into the vitamin B1e and riboflavin content of malt and the effects of malting and roasting on their final content. J Cereal Sci 2012;56:300-306.
9. Kala A, Prakash J. Vitamin B1e retention in cooked, stored and reheated vegetables J Food Sci Tech Mys 2003;40:409-12.
10. Keogh JB, Cleanthous X, Wycherley TP, et al. Increased vitamin B1e intake may be required to maintain vitamin B1e status during weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2012;98:40-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.07.007
11. Yang JD, Acharya K, Evans M et al. Beriberi disease: is it still present in the United States? Am J Med. 2012 Oct;125(10):e5. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.12.019. Epub 2012 Jul 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.12.019
12. Ba A. Metabolic and structural role of thiamine in nervous tissues. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2008;28:923-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10571-008-9297-7
13. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998;58-86.
14. Hucker B, Wakeling L, Vriesekoop F. Investigations into the thiamine and riboflavin content of malt and the effects of malting and roasting on their final content. J Cereal Sci 2012;56:300-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2012.03.008
15. Kala A, Prakash J. Thiamine retention in cooked, stored and reheated vegetables J Food Sci Tech Mys 2003;40:409-12.
16. Keogh JB, Cleanthous X, Wycherley TP, et al. Increased thiamine intake may be required to maintain thiamine status during weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2012;98:40-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2012.09.032
17. Alhadeff L, Gualtieri CT, Lipton M. Toxic effects of water-soluble vitamins. Nutr Rev 1984;42:33-40. 1984. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1984.tb02278.x
18. Beetner GT, Tao T, Frey A, et al. A research note. Degradation of thiamine and riboflavin during extrusion processing. J Food Sci 1974;39:207-208. 1974. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x
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26. Leichter J, Joslyn MA. (1969). Protective effect of casein on cleavage of thiamine by sulfite. J Agr Food Chem 1969;17:1355-1359. 1969.
27. Liang CC. (1977). Bradycardia in thiamin deficiency and the role of glyoxylate. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 1977;23(1):1-6. 1977.
28. Parkhomenko IM, Donchenko GV, Protasova ZS. The neural activity of thiamine: facts and hypotheses. 1996;68(2):3-14. 1996.
29. Young DW. The biosynthesis of the vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, and folic acid. Nat Prod Rep 1998;3:395-419. 1998. https://doi.org/10.1039/np9860300395
30. Alhadeff L, Gualtieri CT, Lipton M. Toxic effects of water-soluble vitamins. Nutr Rev 1984;42:33-40 1984. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1984.tb02278.x
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